This research challenges the universal application of Westphalian legitimacy. Using Syria as a case study, it shows how external notions of sovereignty clash with internal consent. From Ottoman rule to the Ba’athists and the recent regime shift, Syria illustrates how Realpolitik overrides popular will. The study argues for a global order that respects grassroots self-determination over imposed political models.

Introduction The Trojan Horse Scandal was a letter sent to Birmingham City Council in 2013, highlighting five stages for an alleged plot to take over schools in Birmingham, to ‘Islamise’ them. Scribbled and sporadic, it was apparently found amongst some papers that an employee saw within her boss’s boxes. The Council didn’t seem to take it seriously at first, believing it to be without substance. Until it was leaked to the media, that is... In the early months of 2014, this l

Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations argues Islam and the West are destined to collide, yet this framing is misleading. Civilisations are not monoliths, and violence is not unique to religion. Western liberalism and secularism, often portrayed as neutral, function as ideologies with their own propensity for domination and violence. The true clash lies not in culture, but in competing ideologies seeking global supremacy.